（附写作范文点评）
对于备考托福的考生而言，最头疼的问题要属托福独立写作的中间段落的论证呢？那么怎么样才能写出一个饱满而有力的段落呢？超级学长的老师今天给大家分享的就是四大段落论证方法的教学笔记，其中还有老师点评的满分段落，备考托福的考生一点不能错过！
一、列举分类
列举分类是说明文、议论文最常见也是最容易的段落拓展方法之一。其主题句往往具有明显的提示性，即出现复述名词的频率很高。比如主题句含有measures,types,categories,ways,methods,solutions等词，宜用列举方式发展段落，如出现kinds,types,categories等词，宜用分类方式来发展段落。
例1
Violence on the Internet poses great threat to physiological and psychological development of teenagers. First of all, playing too many games containing violent content online will surely damage their eyesight. Furthermore, indulging in those games may seriously distract their study. Worse still, with immature mind, some games even resort to violence to solve interpersonal conflicts in their life. Therefore,we need to try to keep young people away from online violence.
例2
Since the beginning of this year, the levels of air pollution in Beijing have been dangerously high, with thick clouds of smog chasing people indoors, disrupting air travel, and affecting the health of millions. The past two weeks have been especially bad -- at one point the pollution level measured 40 times recommended safety levels. Authorities are taking short-term measures to combat the current crisis, shutting down some factories and limiting government auto usage. However, long-term solutions seem distant, as China's use of coal continues to rise, and the government remains slow to acknowledge and address the problems.
(1).The traffic problems in this city can be solved in the following three ways.
(2).In our school, there are two commonly used tests to evaluate student’s overall ability.
(3).There are different groups of people who are working out in gyms.
(4).With the popularization of the Internet, the way we acquire knowledge becomes more diverse and flexible.
主体+中心思想+列举引导词（in the following ways…..） |
First/ First of all/ in the first place/ To start with/to begin with/ For one thing |
Second/ in the second place /besides/in addition/ furthermore/what’s more/ moreover/worse still |
third/last/Apart from A, B.. / for another |
例3
In order to resolve this sense of alienation within families, I believe we must first address its root causes. Perhaps, the most effective method of doing this would be governments to offer financial incentives to parents who choose to remain at home and take care of their families. Admittedly, such incentives would probably not fully compensate couples for lost income; however, they would at least soften the hardship of living on a single income and provide an alternative for parent who would rather remain at home but are unable to do so because of financial constraints. One further measure would be to promote more interactive leisure activities in the community through public education campaigns.
二、举例论证
举例论证是议论文中常见的论证方法。使用这种方法，要使用高质量、贴切到位的例子。整个段落用一个例子的情况不是很多，举例论证通常跟其他论证方法混合使用来证明一个观点，且多出现在次要的支持句中。
举例论证包括：事实举例；数据举例；假设举例；引用举例
举例论证的注意事项：举的例子不超过2句话；少用或者不用中国谚语；例子要能够论证观点且引起读者共鸣；假如有读者陌生的例子，则可用括号，定语从句，或者同位语短语解释。
主体+中心思想+列举引导词（in the following ways…..） |
First+ For example/ For instance/ a case in point/ take….for example |
Second+such as |
Third+to illustrate/ as an illustration |
例4（主题句由一个例子来论证）
Learning is more effective if a lesson or experience is deliberately coupled with time spent thinking about what was just presented, a new study shows. In “Learning by Thinking: How Reflection Aids Performance,” a team of researchers from HEC Paris, Harvard Business School, and the University of North Carolina describe what they call the first empirical test (有根据的 adj.)of the effect of reflection on learning. By “reflection,” they mean taking time after a lesson to synthesize, abstract, or articulate the important points.
【学生写作】
It is more essential for children to study when they are young to achieve a good future in education, in career and in fortune instead of doing chores whole time. For example, my father, a poor guy when he was young, his family can only afford one kid to get education, therefore all his sisters gave up studying and began to help parents do household chores, my father, thereby got a chance to go to a law school and now, he is an excellent lawyer with amount of income and good reputation.
例5（主题句由两个例子来论证）
First of all, I believe it is a mistake to base our views on broad stereotypes is often inaccurate. Although there are certainly traits which are typical of men and others which are typical of women, there are exceptions to every rule. Not all women are physically weak, just as not all men are poor interpersonal communicators; conventional gender roles are not appropriate for everybody. If a man or woman desires to pursue a career which is traditionally reserved for the opposite sex, I believe he/she should be provided the opportunities to prove him/she capable.
例6（举例与其他论证方法混合使用）
Firstly, it is vital that we appreciate the importance of endangered species in maintaining the balance of nature. Ecosystems are delicate arrangements where plants and animals all depend on each other for survival. The disappearance or introduction of any animal species disrupts the balance and negatively impacts upon other plants and animals by breaking the food chain and altering the habitats in which they live. (When any animal species disappears or a new one is introduced, it disrupts the balance and negatively influences other plants and animals by breaking the food chain and altering the environment which they live in.)Such imbalances frequently return to haunt us in unexpected ways. (Imbalances like this often come back and cause unexpected problems in the future.)Just as rabbits that were introduced to Australia soon after European settlement now compete with native species for food and destroy farmer’s crops, the extinction of a predator can cause plagues by allowing its prey to multiply unchecked. Therefore, since ecological change constitutes a potential risk to us and our environment, it is clearly in our own interests to protect endangered species. (Clearly, we should save endangered species because environmental change is dangerous to us and also to the world they we live in)
三、因果论证
因果论证（cause and effect）是除列举外最常见的论证方法。如果主题句是以“因”出现的话，那么论证往往可以从“原因”来入手；相反，如果主题句式以“结果”出现的话，那往往可以从“结果”来讨论；也有的主题句并没有很明显的区分。
写作方法：
1.表示原因和结果的逻辑引导词与状语从句：Due to / because of /owing to / thanks to/ Because, as, since, for, so Therefore/as a result/ consequently/ as a consequence/ hence/thus
2.表示原因结果的短语：（A导致B）A cause B/ A leads to B/ A result in B, A gives rise to B/ A contributes B/ A accounts for B/A is accountable for B/ A is responsible to B（B是由A引发的） B is caused by A/ B results from A, B is owed to A, B is attributed/ attributable to A
3.伴随状语表示结果：American people are allowed to possess guns, contributing to a high percentage of campus shootings.
4.非限制定从表原因：The rainforests are shrinking at an alarming rate, which is mainly caused by human activities.
例7（从原因来分析）
Yet, perhaps the strongest argument in favor of preserving endangered species is that all life has intrinsic value; even if endangered species are not useful to use in any practical way they should be preserved nevertheless. Further, given that we humans are responsible for destroying the natural habitat of many endangered animals, we should make every possible effort to save them. (Also, because we people are destroying the homes of many rare animals species, we should try to save them.)
例8（从结果来分析）
Surprisingly, the most serious consequences of rural depopulation are often felt in urban areas. (It is surprising to note that cities often experience the most serious effects of migration away from the country./It is somewhat surprising that the most serious effects of rural depopulation are often experienced in the city.)As a result of overcrowding, cities throughout the world today are increasingly prone to environmental problems like air, water and noise pollution. Beijing is a particularly good example of this. Further, the uncontrolled growth of cities also gives rise to social problems such as high unemployment, crime and, in less affluent countries, the creation of slums. (Overcrowding in cities also causes problems like high unemployment and crime.)Clearly, there is a limit to how many people can live in one area before living standards are negatively influenced.
例9
First of all, global tourism tends to export many negative aspects of western culture. Since it is only the wealthy who can afford to travel abroad, developing countries like Thailand and Indonesia have become playgrounds of tourists from more affluent ones. (Because only rich people have enough money to travel overseas, poorer countries like Thailand and Indonesia have become the playgrounds of richer ones.)In many such nations, this influx of mainly western tourists has brought with it problems such as prostitution as well as alcoholism and drug abuse. (In many such countries, this increasing number of western visitors has created problems like prostitution, alcoholism, and drug abuse.)Admittedly, international tourism does have the potential to foster greater understanding and tolerance between people of different cultures. However, this is unlikely to occur while it remains such a potent symbol of western cultural domination and moral decadence.
3.原因结果混合使用
例10
Chief among the causes of the problem is the modern lifestyle. (The modern way of life is the main cause of this problem.)Today’s parents have to work together to work harder than those of previous generations to support their families. Traditionally, one parent assumed the role of breadwinner while the other---typically the mother---acted as the homemaker. Recently, though, double income families have become the norm.(Recently, however, double income families have become more normal.) Consequently, an increasing number of children now grow up in a parentless environment. (so more and more children now grow up without their parents at home.)Little wonder, then, that they feel alienated. (so it is not surprising that they do not feel close to their families./ It is no wonder, then, that they do not feel close.)Another contributing factor is the passive and solitary nature of many modern forms of entertainment.(Another factor that adds to the problem is that many types of modern entertainment are passive and designed for one person.)
四、对比与比较
比较（comparison）往往是比较两种事物之间的相似之处；而对比（contrast）则是比较两种事物的不同之处。当主题句中出现两种事物的时候，既可以使用比较和对比法来拓展段落。
例11：I prefer living in the city center to living in the suburbs.
Commuting time | Noisy | Entertainment | safe | |
City center | Shorter | Noisy | Easy reach | safer |
suburbs | longer | Quiet | Hard to get access | Less safe |
1.事物A的特点1、2、3+事物B1、2、3
2.事物A 的特点1+事物B的特点1；事物A的特点2+事物B的特点2；事物A的特点3+事物B的特点3(逻辑更清楚)
例11：
I prefer living the city center to living in the suburbs. Living in the city, we can save a lot of time on commuting, but if we live in the suburbs, we have to get up much earlier in order not to be late for work. While some may argue the city center is too noisy to live in, it provides great life convenience. We are within easy reach of different leisure facilities. In contrast, the suburban life makes it hard us to get access to various forms of entertainment, namely less fun. When it turns to safety issue, the city center is definitely a better choice due to better neighbor watch and frequent police presence.
常用词
Unlike/ be different from/ differ from/ by contrast/ in contrast/ however/ but/ while/ on the contrary/ whereas/ instead/ on the other hand
例12：
Another major contributing factor in the sub-standard academic achievement of today’s student is the undue attention that many schools give to “soft” subjects like music, art and drama. Interesting though they may be, these subjects simply serve to distract students from more important and practical subjects such as mathematics and English. (These subjects are interesting. However, they just prevent students from concentrating on more important and practical subjects like mathematics and English.)The more time a student spends learning how to paint, for instance, the less time they spend learning how to read. (if students spend more time learning to paint, they spend less time learning to read.)In order to improve educational outcomes, therefore, we must ensure that core subjects are not neglected.
例13：
One point which I believe to be absolutely pivotal is the fact that tobacco is a drug. (One thing that I think to be vitally important is the fact that tobacco is drug.)The majority of governments around the world take a prohibitionist approach to the problem of substance abuse. If governments wish to be consistent in pursuing their “war on drugs”, therefore, I believe they must ban tobacco as well. This is particularly so given the fact that many currently illicit drugs---including heroin and marijuana—have legitimate medical applications, while tobacco has none. (This is especially so considering the fact that some drugs which are now illegal, such heroin and marijuana, could be used by doctors to treat various real medical problems.)